The sub-Saharan cities are growing and changing due to immigration and modernization.One of the consequences of the current urbanization is that an increasingnumber of families residing in peri-urban areas of small rural towns lack access tobasic municipal and ecosystem services. The purpose of the paper is to demonstratethe impacts of peri-urban expansion on municipal services provided by the governmentsand on ecosystems services through a case study of a small rural town calledMakhado Biaba in Limpopo Province of South Africa. Makhado Biaba has beenexperiencing incessant rapid physical expansion over the years. Such spatial expansioninto the peri-urban zone impacts the provision of municipal services such aswater, electricity, sewerage, and refuse collection. In 2020, an exploratory mixedmethodsstudy of some anthropocentric and ecosystem changes in Makhado BiabaLocal Municipality in northeast South Africa was executed. Land use was mappedfor the time period of 1990–2020, data were gathered through a household questionnairein six villages, and interviews were held with municipal officials. Among others,the study showed that several municipal services are available in the peri-urbanvillages of Makhado Biaba Town despite the distant locations outside the urbancore. However, services are not uniformly distributed due to that new peri-urbandevelopments that are leapfrogging into vacant land without supporting infrastructure.The pace of the municipality in providing the necessary municipal servicessuch as water and energy supply, as well as sanitation and refuse removal, is laggingbehind the development of new and unplanned housing areas. The findings bringabout information about the suburban livelihoods and how the administration of theperi-urban areas can respond to the needs of the inhabitants as well as to future challenges.For instance, to facilitate local development, recurrent and well-structuredcitizen dialogs with local groups to identify delivery failures are strongly recommended.In addition, the impact on ecosystem services by the city development andland use change stresses the need for guided urban development and expansion and also settlement upgrading programs in peri-urban zones to limit the bad effect onecosystem services.

Many citizens in countries now accept that there is a need to adapt to climate change and to invest in renewable resources. This paper contributes to the planning of energy development in South Africa. Currently, South Africa is faced with a crisis in energy security with ‘load shedding’ resulting in hours without power. Coal, a fossil fuel, is the main source for energy in South Africa with negative effects for the environment and human health. To provide security over the future supply of domestic energy, the technique of fracking on and offshore is being advanced as an alternative by government which has been granting exploratory fracking licences. A review of the literature at the nexus of fracking, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and ecosystem services was undertaken from a triple risk lens (Prpich & Coulon 2018). The findings indicate that fracking operations may create a short-lived economic boom but there is substantive scholarly evidence on the immense long- term risks for both the environment and human health. The impact of land use changes through fracking and the risks of fracking operations for ecosystems, climate change and achieving the SDGs of Agenda 2030 are evident and form a ‘self-reinforcing loop’. We conclude that if fracking is predominantly being perceived from a prism of its economic benefits, then economic value needs to be attached to all the services that are provided by ecosystems. Thus, we recommend that an ecosystem services assessment must precede the granting of frackinglicences to evaluate whether fracking is a viable option. It is also suggested Take Stock of Fracking Risks and Count the Costs239that compensatory justice, be included as a policy measure for rehabilitation of the land where fracking has already commenced. In conclusion, we assert that healthy, environmentally sustainable living conditions need to be provided for all citizens and investment is needed to support adequate renewable energy infrastructure, a pre- requisite for government’s Just Energy Transformation (JET). 

Higher education institutions (HEIs) have a pivotal role in fulfilling the social dimension of sustainability and contributing to a complex changing society. To meet these challenges, Malmö University has in interdisciplinary groups researched the role of challenge-based learning (CBL) in relation to staff, students, disciplines, and stakeholders. This position paper is based on that work. Malmö University argues that with a CBL approach, HEIs will actively contribute to the building of a sustainable learning society through collaboration in education, research, and innovation. This paper theoretically explores the CBL approach as a collaborative learning exchange within HEIs and society at large. CBL is defined through eight key elements, clustered as entities of three domains: diversity and inclusion, co-creation and collaboration, and change agents and contextual challenges. These are discussed and empirically exemplified with the purpose to support designing, planning, and accomplishing CBL in teaching and learning in HE for a global learning society.

In this article, we aim to identify and explore possibilities and challenges of academicinterdisciplinary capacities and ethos. The objective is that this knowledge could be used both infuture interdisciplinary research projects and in educational settings. We achieve this through selfreflectivelearning processes among a group of interdisciplinary scholars from four distinctly differentsubjects. The method used is an autoethnographic and empirical self-reflective approach to datacollection, analysis and deconstruction of professional learning processes. This also serves to establishresearch methodological trustworthiness and authenticity. The results show that interdisciplinarityis undervalued by grant-giving institutions and the academic system, in general. It also entailstime-consuming and risky research practices. However, interdisciplinary and collaborative researchcreates a more innovative and stimulating learning environment and enforces new ways of thinkingand doing, in ascertaining each individual’s knowledge and competences. We argue that a long-terminterdisciplinary and collaborative research process could enhance and raise a critical thinking andcreative consciousness among scholars, contributing to a more holistic, sustainable and socially robustlearning in research and higher education. Finally, we conclude that this academic interdisciplinarycapacity and ethos could be framed and enhanced by the notion of Challenge-Based Learning.

Research to date on urban ecosystem services has mainly been conducted in large cities, particularly in China, the USA and someEuropean countries. This study examined the provision of urban ecosystem services in a Swedish municipality context, based oninterviews with municipal stakeholders in strategic management and planning from six municipalities and a review of existingpublications readily available to practitioners. The analysis focused on (1) the ecosystem services explicitly covered, (2) whethermultifunctionality was covered and specific synergies and trade-offs identified and, (3) the spatial scale and context used forecosystem services (valuation/mapping, planning, design or maintenance) in practical application. The results showed thatregulatory services are very much the focus in municipal operations as well as in publications available to practitioners. Thisis reflected in the implementation of the concept through problem solving often related to regulatory services, usingmultifunctionality and win-win situations in ecosystem service supply. These findings contribute to the growing body of workexploring how the concept of ecosystem services is adapted and utilised in practice.

För närvarande lever vi i en tid med stora samhällsutmaningar och som ytterligare aktualiserades hösten 2018 när International Plant Protection Convention, IPPC publicerade en rapport gällande de klimatförändringar som pågår (IPCC, 2018).

Ekosystem bestående av sjöar och vattenområden är viktiga och känsliga indikatorer på klimatförändringar eftersom de svarar relativt snabbt på förändringar i klimatet. Många sjöar på norra halvklotet täcks av is under vintern och de är dimiktiska, vilket innebär att vattnet cirkulerar två gånger varje år. Isen förhindrar inte bara gasutbyte eller vindblandning utan isen tillsammans med snö, är också ett stort hinder som förkortar odlingsperioden för alla producenter i sjön genom att minska ljusinsläppet. Vårblomningen av växtplankton tillsammans med den termiska skiktningen som sker under den lugnare sommarperioden kan förekomma tidigare på säsongen om isen bryts upp tidigare. Klimatuppvärmning kommer att leda till högre temperaturer och det kommer att förändra blandningsförhållandena såväl som den termiska skiktningen i sjöar. Samtliga sjöar som ingår i denna studie ligger i de södra delarna av Norrland i Sverige. Den genomsnittliga islossningen mellan 2001 – 2010 sker ungefär 12 dagar tidigare jämfört med den genomsnittliga islossningen mellan 1916 – 1925 och 11 dagar tidigare än för perioden 1976 – 1985. Den genomsnittliga årliga lufttemperaturen i Junsele uppvisar en trend där lufttemperaturen blir varmare med tiden. Högre lufttemperatur visar en god korrelation med förändringar i islossning, där sjöarna upplever en kortare tid med lager av is och snö.

While ecosystem-based planning approaches are increasingly promoted through international and national policies, municipalities are still struggling with translating them into practice. Against this background, this paper aims to increase the knowledge of current advances and possible ways to support the implementation of the ecosystem services (ES) approach at the municipal level. More specifically, we analyze how ES have been integrated into comprehensive planning within the municipality of Malmö in Sweden over the last 60 years, a declared forerunner in local environmental governance. Based on a content analysis of comprehensive plans over the period 1956–2014 and interviews with municipal stakeholders, this paper demonstrates how planning has shifted over time toward a more holistic view of ES and their significance for human well-being and urban sustainability. Both explicit and implicit applications of the ES concept were found in the analyzed comprehensive plans and associated programs and projects. Our study shows how these applications reflect international, national, and local policy changes, and indicates how municipalities can gradually integrate the ES approach into comprehensive planning and facilitate the transition from implicit to more explicit knowledge use.

Transdisciplinary research and collaboration is widely acknowledged as a critical success factor for solution- oriented approaches that can tackle complex sustainability challenges, such as biodiversity loss, pollution, and climate-related hazards. In this context, city governments’ engagement in transdisciplinarity is generally seen as a key condition for societal transformation towards sustainability. However, empirical evidence is rare. This paper presents a self-assessment of a joint research project on ecosystem services and climate adaptation planning (ECOSIMP) undertaken by four universities and seven Swedish municipalities. We apply a set of design principles and guiding questions for transdisciplinary sustainability projects and, on this basis, identify key aspects for supporting university–municipality collaboration. We show that: (1) selecting the number and type of project stakeholders requires more explicit consideration of the purpose of societal actors’ participation; (2) concrete, interim benefits for participating practitioners and organisations need to be continuously discussed; (3) promoting the ‘inter’, i.e., interdisciplinary and inter-city learning, can support transdisciplinarity and, ultimately, urban sustainability and long-term change. In this context, we found that design principles for transdisciplinarity have the potential to (4) mitigate project shortcomings, even when transdisciplinarity is not an explicit aim, and (5) address differences and allow new voices to be heard. We propose additional guiding questions to address shortcomings and inspire reflexivity in transdisciplinary projects.

Scientific knowledge regarding the effects of toxic compounds in aquatic ecosystems has increased over recent years. But still there is a need to establish relevant monitoring tools in order to generate an early warning signal of environmental conditions. In the aquatic ecosystems microalgae are the first step in the ecological food chain and as they are very sensitive to toxic elements they can be used as an early warning system when monitoring pollution. The most common parameters when using microalgae in bioassays are photosynthetic parameters and growth. However, there is an increasing need for monitoring tools that are fast and sensitive to a broad range of toxicants. As a complement to more common methods, swimming behavior of microalgae is a promising tool in order to get accurate and rapid analyses. Bioassay methods based on the response of living microorganisms could therefore provide important information concerning the ecological status of aquatic environments. The ECOTOX bioassay calculates the number of motile cells, percentage of cells moving upwards (gravitaxis), the mean velocity, the compactness (form factor) and the precision of orientation (r-value) (cf. Chapter 10: Ecotox, this volume). Studies testing the effects of wastewater and heavy metals on the flagellate Euglena gracilis using the ECOTOX system demonstrate that upward swimming and precision of gravitactic orientation are the most sensitive parameters. The effects show differences between short- and long-term tests but the effects from herbicides showed pronounced effects on velocity and upward swimming of E. gracilis already after 30 and 60 s. ECOTOX measurements from Egyptian lakes which are polluted by industrial and domestic wastewaters showed strong inhibition on upward swimming and r-value of E. gracilis. Samples taken from the wastewater treatment plant west of Alexandria showed that the toxicity is not reduced by the treatment. The results from studies using the ECOTOX system indicate that this bioassay could be very useful in the future for short- and long-term risk assessments.

Projektet ECOSIMP handlar om förutsättningen för att implementera begreppet ekosystemtjänst, i fortsättningen kallat EST-begreppet, i kommunerna, och undersöker bland annat hur kommunala tjänstemän och politiker ser på denna utmaning. En intervjustudie genomfördes med tjänstemän och politiker i de sju medverkande kommunerna. I en studie av Malmö stad undersöktes hur ekosystemtjänst-relaterade begrepp har integrerats i översiktsplaner och utvecklats till ett verktyg i hållbar samhällsplanering. Ett annat delprojekt handlar om miljökonsekvens-bedömningar (MKB) och behovet av metodutveckling för att integrera ekosystemtjänstansatsen i MKB, där möjligheten att integrera ekosystemtjänster i den så kallade RIAM-metoden analyserades. Projektet innehåller också en analys av arbetet med att integrera ekosystemtjänster i kommunernas klimatanpassning, så kallad ekosystembaserad klimatanpassning (EbA). Slutligen redovisas en analys av det transdisciplinära arbetssättet inom ECOSIMP-projektet. Resultaten visar att EST-begreppet idag är relativt välkänt i kommunerna och att det finns en övervägande positiv inställning till det och förhoppningar om att det ska skapa större möjlighet till miljöhänsyn. Förståelsen av begreppet behöver dock fördjupas i den kommunala verksamheten och distinktionen mellan implicit och explicit användning av EST-begreppet och den relaterade EST-ansatsen förtydligas. Ett antal hinder och möjligheter för att börja använda begreppet och för att uppnå etappmålet 2018 identifierades också. Bland annat upplevs innebörden av etappmålet 2018 som oklar, och bara en mindre del av de intervjuade i kommunerna ansåg att etappmålet skulle nås. Betydelsen av att politiker och allmänhet får kännedom om, och förståelse för, EST-begreppet betonades också. Malmö framstår som ett bra exempel på hur långsiktigt arbete för en hållbar stadsutveckling kan skapa förutsättningar att integrera ekosystemtjänster i den fysiska planeringen. Analysen av EbA i kommunerna visade att initiativ relaterade till klimatanpassning och ekosystemtjänster oftast inte är samordnade, men de skulle kunna utvecklas i den riktningen genom bättre samordning mellan kommunernas olika enheter och integrering av EbA i den långsiktiga planeringen utifrån kunskap om nutida och framtida klimatrisker. Verktyg för att värdera förändringar i EST till följd av mänsklig exploatering behövs och här föreslås en utveckling av den så kallade RIAM-metoden, som kan erbjuda ett sätt att väga in olika EST i planeringen. Den transdisciplinära analysen visar på värdet av nära samverkan mellan forskning och kommuner kring implementeringen av EST-ansatsen, men också på behovet av politiskt och ekonomiskt stöd för att frigöra tid för kommunerna att delta i sådana projekt.

Begreppet hållbar utveckling är idag ett väletablerat begrepp, samtidigt som det är komplext och öppet för olika tolkningar. Hållbar utveckling innebär att samhället måste planera utifrån såväl ekologiska och sociala som ekonomiska aspekter. Eftersom begreppet kan förstås på olika sätt är utbildning en viktig del i utvecklingen av ett hållbart samhälle – inte bara för att utveckla kunskaper utan även för att få möjlighet att reflektera över problem och möjligheter. Betydelsen av en hållbar samhällsutveckling förstärktes i och med att FN utlyste en dekad för lärande om hållbar utveckling mellan åren 2005 och 2014. Målet med denna dekad var att elever och studenter skall kunna utveckla verktyg för att på så sätt kunna göra medvetna fram- tida val med hänsyn till ekologisk, ekonomisk och social hållbarhet. Med detta som grund har även Naturskyddsföreningen arbetat med att stärka och utveckla utbildningen för hållbar utveckling. Latinskolan i Malmö har fungerat som en modellskola för utvecklingen av lärande om hållbar utveckling med stöd av Naturskyddsföreningen. Projektet har även inkluderat samverkan med Malmö högskola, vilket har inneburit att forskare med förankring inom forskningsområdet hållbar utveckling arbetat med en forskningscirklel för lärare från Latinskolan för att på så sätt fördjupa kunskaperna inom området lärande för hållbar utveckling. Denna rapport är resultaten av denna forskningscirkel. I rapporten kan man läsa om följande projekt: Lena Ansner och Sofia Gustafson Aarnivaara har undersökt hur estetiska designprocesser kan bidra till att utveckla elevers kritiska tänkande såväl som deras möjligheter att ta plats i offentligheten. För att undersöka detta genomförde de ett projekt om gatukonst – där eleverna dels studerade befintlig gatukonst, dels gjorde egen gatukonst. Detta reste frågor om vems röst som får höras i samhället, och på vilken plats. I sin analys utforskade Lena och Sofia hur elever kan använda den konstnärliga processen för att ta plats och göra avtryck i det offentliga rummet och därmed stärka sin känsla av delaktighet i stadens utveckling. Josefine Lindeberg och Helena Heister har undersökt hur ett undervisningstema tillsammans där språkämnena svenska och engelska och biologiämnet skulle hjälpa eleverna att använda sina kunskaper för att argumentera och ta ställning i en hållbarhetsfråga. Ämnesområdet var genteknik, ett spännande case för att lyfta hållbar utveckling eftersom frågor kring hälsa, ekologi, men även ekonomiska vinstintressen är ständigt närvarande inom detta område. Ett resultat från studien handlar om frågan om att arbeta och svårigheten att försöka sammansmälta olika ämnen. I skolan finns en mängd olika strukturella motstånd som stör lärandet. Lars Berggren undersökte, inom ramen för ett ämnesövergripande medieprojekt, hur detta kunde bidra till att eleverna utvecklar en global handlingskompetens och en pluralistisk syn på vad som är »hållbart«. Tillsammans i projektet – som handlade om mänskliga rättigheter – arbetade en medieklass på estetiska programmet och en språkintroduktionsklass med nyanlända flyktingar. I inledningsfasen av hade esteteleverna en ganska gängse uppfattning om att svenskar är bättre än andra på mänskliga rättigheter, men efterhand infann sig en viss ödmjukhet inför språkintroduktionsklassens elevers kunskaper och erfarenheter.

ABSTRACT. Ecosystem-based approaches for climate change adaptation are promoted at international, national, and local levels by both scholars and practitioners. However, local planning practices that support these approaches are scattered, and measures are neither systematically implemented nor comprehensively reviewed. Against this background, this paper advances the operationalization of ecosystem-based adaptation by improving our knowledge of how ecosystem-based approaches can be considered in local planning (operational governance level). We review current research on ecosystem services in urban areas and examine four Swedish coastal municipalities to identify the key characteristics of both implemented and planned measures that support ecosystem-based adaptation. The results show that many of the measures that have been implemented focus on biodiversity rather than climate change adaptation, which is an important factor in only around half of all measures. Furthermore, existing measures are limited in their focus regarding the ecological structures and the ecosystem services they support, and the hazards and risk factors they address. We conclude that a more comprehensive approach to sustainable ecosystem-based adaptation planning and its systematic mainstreaming is required. Our framework for the analysis of ecosystem-based adaptation measures proved to be useful in identifying how ecosystem-related matters are addressed in current practice and strategic planning, and in providing knowledge on how ecosystem-based adaptation can further be considered in urban planning practice. Such a systematic analysis framework can reveal the ecological structures, related ecosystem services, and risk-reducing approaches that are missing and why. This informs the discussion about why specific measures are not considered and provides pathways for alternate measures/designs, related operations, and policy processes at different scales that can foster sustainable adaptation and transformation in municipal governance and planning. Key Words: climate change adaptation; ecosystem management; ecosystem services; green infrastructure; municipal planning; naturebased solutions; renaturing cities; risk reduction; spatial planning; sustainability transitions; urban planning; urban resilience; urban transformation

A current focus of ecosystem services (ES) implementation is on the municipal level of government where international and national legislation and policies have to be translated into practice. Given this focus, an understanding of perceptions within municipalities of the ES concept is crucial to support the implementation process. Against this background, this paper examines the perceptions of Swedish municipal stakeholders for the ES concept. A 2013 Swedish federal mandate that states that the values of ecosystem services should be considered in relevant decision-making processes, provides a timely context. Current perceptions, preconditions and awareness are explored via interviews and analyses. The results show that the views on the ecosystem services concept and its usefulness are generally very positive. Conceptual knowledge use is perceived as important as is the recognition of monetary valuation of ES. However, clarification of the distinction between implicit and explicit use of the concept by stakeholders is needed. Finally, results indicate that a deeper understanding of monetary valuation of ecosystem services by municipal staff members is connected with a more critical view on monetary valuation. It is concluded that detailed and clear definitions and guidelines are needed in order to support the process of implementing ES in municipalities.

Supported by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency a research project is developed in close collaboration with seven coastal municipalities in the county of Skåne in southern Sweden. Since the municipalities along the coastline face a range of environmental challenges, several case studies are aimed at understanding local municipality planning processes. The overall research objective is to understand the premises of implementing the Ecosystem Service (ES) approach in municipal planning and decision making. This case study examines to what extent ES concepts are accounted for in Malmö municipality comprehensive plans through a content analysis of ES concepts in the 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2012 plans. The ES concepts were categorized according to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment into supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Preliminary results show that the “ecosystem service” concept itself is not used before the 2012 comprehensive plan. Quantitative analysis of the total number of different ES concepts used in the comprehensive plans shows a large increase from 1980 to 1990 and thereafter a gradual decrease to 2000 and 2012, where 2012 is lower than 1980. The introduction of the Swedish natural resources law in 1987 could explain the peaking number in 1990. If latter comprehensive plans build upon former, the concept usage can be interpreted as increasing from 1980 and forward. These results indicate a shift into using the ES approach in municipality planning processes. Qualitative analysis shows that there is a change in the ES concepts used, e.g. “land use” and “green areas” in 1980 and “biological life cycle” and “biodiversity” in 2000 indicates a shift in municipality planning processes towards a more holistic view of the importance of ecosystems for a sustainable society and healthy life. Although somewhat uncertain, these results could indicate an introduction of the ES approach in the Malmö municipality planning processes.

In Sweden a unique project supported by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is developed in close collaboration with seven coastal municipalities in Skåne. These municipalities face a range of different environmental challenges, from municipalities along the eastern coast line to municipalities in the western Öresund region. Research questions and approaches are built on case studies and scenarios to assess local municipality planning processes. The objective is to study the premises of implementing the use of the Ecosystem Service (ES) approach in municipal planning and decision making. This study presents a project component that focuses on the analysis of the comprehensive plans in the city of Malmö from 1980 to 2012. Interviews with staff from municipal departments were done as a complement to the collection of data from the comprehensive plans. The results show current trends in municipal and comprehensive planning from an ES perspective, i.e., the use of ES as a tool for sustainable development. The results further show that the ES concept was explicitly first found in the comprehensive plan from 2012. Implicitly, approaches for ecosystem services management and related planning changed from “land use”, “green areas” and “green space” (1980) towards “recreation” (1990) and “biological life cycle” and “biodiversity” (2000). This change indicates that the process in local municipality planning has shifted towards a more holistic view of the importance of ecosystems for a sustainable society and healthy life, which is currently further advanced via the ES concept.

In Sweden a unique project supported by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will be developed in close collaboration with coastal municipalities in Skåne, and with a coordinating role by Skåne´s Association of Local Authorities. These municipalities face a range of different environmental challenges, from areas along the eastern coast line facing problems related to the Baltic Sea, to municipalities in the Öresund region. In this study a range of different environmental conditions and related ecosystem services, from vulnerability to floods, erosion and sea level rise to strong pressure on coastal systems from urbanization will be investigated. Research questions and directions are built on cases and scenarios which are a part of the local municipality planning process. The approach will be to study the premises of implementing the Ecosystem Services (ES) in municipal planning and decision making of five coastal municipalities. The present study will analyse past decisions, present planning and future challenges for municipality development and management from the perspective of ES, with the aim of increasing our understanding of the ES concept as a tool for sustainable development. A second aim of the project is to evaluate the potential value of connecting the ES approach to ongoing climate change adaptation in the municipalities. The project will use the six-step approach developed by the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity framework (TEEB) as the main conceptual frame. This approach includes the following steps: 1) Identifying and agreeing on the problem with stakeholders, 2) Identify the ES which are most relevant and pressing in municipality planning, 3) Collect and identify the information needs and the method to collect the data, 4) Assess expected changes in ES due to decision and input from society, 5) Identify policy options based on changes in ES and 6) Assess social and environmental impacts of 1-5.

The aim of this study was to investigate photosynthetic differences between the marine, Norwegian Sea ecotype and the brackish, Bothnian Sea ecotype of F. vesiculosus and F. radicans and to see whether photosynthetic differences could be connected with the relative amounts of D1 protein (PSII), PsaA (PSI) protein and/or Rubisco. For this purpose, we tested if a higher photosynthetic maximum (P max) in the Atlantic Ocean ecotype of F. vesiculosus relative to the Baltic Sea ecotype, and an increase of the P max in Baltic Sea ecotype of F. vesiculosus at higher salinity, could be due to an increase in the relative amounts of Rubisco. The proteins have been evaluated on a relative basis. Immunoblot signals showed that the amount of Rubisco was higher in both ecotypes of F. vesiculosus than in F. radicans, but no differences could be detected between the two ecotypes of F. vesiculosus. The results suggest an uneven photosystem protein stoichiometry in Fucus, with more of the PSI protein PsaA relative to the PSII protein D1. The difference in P max between the two ecotypes of F. vesiculosus might be related to the difficulties for the algae to adapt to the environment in Bothnian Sea.

I samband med de pågående klimatförändringarna så sker även en temperaturhöjning i sjöar och hav. Islossningen sker tidigare i sjöar vilket innebär att växtsäsongen för växtplankton blir längre och att perioden för skiktning kan förlängas. Dessutom kommer troligen artsammansättningen av växtplankton att förändras. Enligt klimatmodeller innebär detta att blå-grön alger börjar sin tillväxt tidigare på våren när temperaturen ökar. Effekter av klimatförändringar på marina ekosystem relaterar till förändringar av havstemperaturen, cirkulation av havsströmmar, skiktningsförhållanden, näring och pH. En ökad havstemperatur ger sedan som följd en höjd havsnivå, en minskad mängd havsis i Arktis och Antarktis, en ökad skiktning av havet, ett förändrat mönster av havsströmmar och ett förändrat inflöde av färskvatten till haven. En av effekterna vid en minskning av havsisen kan bli ett ökat ljusinflöde ner på djupet i havet som i sin tur ger en ökad primärproduktion. Emellertid kan denna ökning av primärproduktionen eventuellt begränsas av näringstillgången. I tropiska vatten är korallekosystemen väldigt känsliga för små förändringar i temperaturen. En ytterligare effekt från en ökad koldioxidhalt i atmosfären är det ökade upptaget av koldioxid till haven som ger en minskning av pH. Ett minskat pH i haven innebär att korallernas förmåga att bilda kalkskelett försämras.

This study investigates the effects of different light qualities on the photosynthetic capacity of the brown algae Fucus vesiculosus, from the Norwegian Sea, and Fucus radicans and F. vesiculosus, from the Bothnian Sea. The electron transport rates (ETR) obtained for F. vesiculosus from the Norwegian Sea showed significantly higher levels of light saturation compared with both species of algae from the Bothnian Sea. The maximum of ETR values for the Norwegian Sea strain showed no significant changes due to varying light quality compared with the initial values. For F. vesiculosus, from the Bothnian Sea, treatment with blue light showed an effect after 1 week of 30 and 90 μmol photons m(-2) s(-1) (P<0.01), and for F. radicans from the Bothnian Sea, at the irradiance of 90 μmol photons m(-2) s(-1) and 1 week (P<0.01). After 1 week in the Bothnian Sea species and after 2 weeks in F. vesiculosus from the Norwegian Sea, the photosynthetic efficiency (α) was significantly higher regardless of light quality and irradiance compared with the initial values. Variation in light quality and irradiance had minor effects on the F(v):F(m) values of the three algal strains studied.

The Bothnian Sea in the northerly part of the Baltic Sea is a geologically recent brackish-water environment, and rapid speciation is occurring in the algal community of the Bothnian Sea. We measured low-temperature fluorescence emission spectra from the Bothnian Sea and the Norwegian Sea ecotypes of Fucus vesiculosus L., a marine macroalga widespread in the Bothnian Sea. Powdered, frozen thallus was used to obtain undistorted emission spectra. The spectra were compared with spectra measured from the newly identified species Fucus radicans L.Bergström et L. Kautsky, which is a close relative of F. vesiculosusand endemic to the Bothnian Sea. The spectrum of variable fluorescence was used to identify fluorescence peaks originating in PSI and PSII in this chl c–containing alga. The spectra revealed much higher PSII emission, compared to PSI emission, in the Bothnian Sea ecotype of F. vesiculosus than in F. radicans or in the Norwegian Sea ecotype of F. vesiculosus. The results suggest that more lightharvesting chl a ⁄ c proteins serve PSII in the Bothnian Sea ecotype of F. vesiculosusthan in the two other algal strains. Treatment of the Bothnian Sea ecotype of F. vesiculosusin high salinity (10, 20, and 35 practical salinity units) for 1 week did not lead to spectral changes, indicating that the measured features of the Bothnian Sea F. vesiculosus are stable and not simply a direct result of exposure to low salinity.

Ecotypes of Fucus vesiculosus L. from the Norwegian Sea (34 psu, marine ecotype) and Bothnian Sea (5 psu, brackish ecotype) have been compared with respect to the ability to withstand desiccation at different temperatures (0, 10, and 20°C). The aim was also to investigate the importance of salinity and light for the availably energy reserves, osmotic adjustment, and pigment content. The maximum quantum yield of photosystem II photochemistry (F_v/F_m) values revealed that the marine ecotype was more able to resist desiccation. The brackish algae showed a decrease in F_v/F_m as a response to desiccation at all temperatures, but the decrease was most pronounced at 20°C. The brackish ecotype recovered from desiccation within 5 h only when treated at 0°C. When the two ecotypes were treated at different levels of salinity in darkness and light, the results suggested that both salinity and irradiance are main factors in the differences in mannitol content between the two ecotypes. Chlorophyll (Chl) measurements showed 25% higher Chl α and 60% higher Chl c in the brackish ecotype in comparison to the marine ecotype. Darkness had a more pronounced effect on the Chl content than the salinity and initiated an increase in the amount of Chl, especially Chl c in the brackish ecotype.

In the present study we compared the contents of water soluble organic compounds of the marine intertidal ecotype of Fucus vesiculosus (Phaeophyceae) from the Norwegian Sea (34 practical salinity units, psu) with the sublittoral ecotype of F. vesiculosus from the brackish Bothnian Sea (5 psu). Nuclear magnetic resonance spectra revealed that marine F. vesiculosus had additional types of water soluble organic compounds compared with brackish F. vesiculosus. The results suggested that glycine betaine in the marine ecotype could be the reason for this ecotype differentiation. Furthermore, the qualitative differences between the ecotypes were the same after one week's treatment of marine algae in brackish water and of brackish algae in marine water. These suggest that the additional types of water soluble organic compounds in marine F. vesiculosus are not caused by the salinity conditions at the growth sites. Further research concerning other environmental factors that may influence ecotype differentiation of water soluble organic compounds qualitative content and adaptation in F. vesiculosus is recommended.

In Sweden, whole tree harvest is common practice, possibly leading to the depletion of mineral nutrients. Furthermore, the increased use of forestry residues for heat production has caused an increasingly growing amount of by-product consisting of wood ash. Therefore, the Swedish Forest Agency has recommended wood ash application (WAA) to replace the mineral nutrients removed by whole tree harvesting, as well as a means to mitigate the acidification of boreal forests and surface waters. In a multidisciplinary study during 2003–2006 in Bispgården (Sweden), we have investigated the limnological effects on a first order stream after WAA (conducted in 2004; 3000 kg ha⁻¹) to a 50-ha forested catchment. In general, no significant effects on an annual basis were found for acidification parameters, such as pH, alkalinity and toxic forms of aluminum (Al). There was, however, evidence of an increased pH during the spring flood, accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in the frequency of low pH-values (<5.6). Moreover, alkalinity increased in the years 2005 and 2006 compared to that of 2003, although the increase in 2006 was not statistically different from that in 2005 or 2003. High concentrations of Al repeatedly occurred in the stream, and the WAA did not affect the frequencies of high concentrations of toxic Al forms (>50 μg l⁻¹). The benthic diatom community did not change as a result of the wood ash treatment and the diatom-based index IPS (Indice de PulluoSensibilité) indicated no nutrient enrichment or organic pollution of the stream water. There were, however, indices of elevated concentrations of potassium (K) in the aquatic moss Fontinalis antipyretica and in leaves from Alder (Alnus incana). We conclude that wood ash treatment of a forested catchment with the dose and form of ash applied in this study did not modify the freshwater ecosystem of a first order stream.

Recycling of wood-ash to boreal forests has been suggested to prevent depletion of essential soil nutrient or reduce the negative effects of acidification of surface waters. The aim of this investigation was to study the effects of different concentrations of wood-ash (5, 10 and 12.5 g l⁻¹ diluted in cultivating medium) on chlorophyll a fluorescence in Euglena gracilis and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii under laboratory conditions. The green alga C. reinhardtii was more susceptible to wood-ash solutions than the flagellate E. gracilis. Two different forms of wood-ash solutions were tested. In the first solution no adjustment of pH was made and after 7 days of incubation with wood-ash the pH for the different wood-ash concentrations (5, 10 and 12.5 g l⁻¹) were 8, 9 and 11, respectively. In the second solution, the pH was adjusted to 7. The results show that no negative effect on fluorescence yield (F_v/F_m), relative electron transport rate (ETR), photochemical quenching (qP) or non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) was observed in E. gracilis. In contrast, C. reinhardtii displayed strong inhibition at concentrations of 10 and 12.5 g l⁻¹ with non-adjusted pH. The negative effects of high pH on photochemical activity in C. reinhardtii could either be related to (1) the destruction of the ΔpH across the thylakoid membranes or (2) other parts in the photosynthetic systems that are negatively affected by changing pH. The results indicate that elevated pH levels due to wood-ash application could be an environmental stress factor to phytoplankton communities and may lead to loss of diversity among primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. If wood-ash application was to become general practice in or near aquatic ecosystems a rapid change in pH induced by wood-ash must be avoided.

The brown alga Fucus vesiculous is one of the few marine species in the Baltic Sea. Fucus vesiculosus shows high morphological and physiological variability as a response to its environmental conditions. The salinity in the Baltic Sea is 4–5 psu, compared to 35 psu in the Atlantic. Photosynthesis of algae is usually measured after collection and transportation to constant culture conditions. However, in this study, relative photosynthetic electron transport rates, calculated from chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters were compared in algae collected from 1 and 4 m depths by SCUBA divers. Measurements of light response curves from the same individuals of F. vesiculosus at different depths and times of the year have, to our knowledge, not been made previously. Measurements were performed on four different occasions during the spring of 2005 (25 February, 3 and 29 April, and 26 May) in the Baltic Sea, using rapid light curves generated with a Diving PAM. In addition, samples were collected for photoinhibition studies in the laboratory. The light response curves obtained in situ at 1 and 4 m depths for F. vesiculosus showed lower values of light saturation with depth. When algae from 1 and 4 m depths were exposed to high irradiances of photosynthetically active radiation (1,400 μmol photons m−2 s−1), algae from 1 m depth showed a higher degree of photoinhibition in comparison to algae from 4 m depth.

Glyphosate is the active ingredient in a range of widely used herbicides. The aim of this work is to evaluate the effects of two commercial herbicides, Roundup and Avans, on the motility, velocity, and gravitactic orientation of the aquatic flagellate Euglena gracilis. An early warning system, called ECOTOX, has been used for monitoring the different parameters of movement. The motility was not affected by Roundup and Avans after short period tests (0, 30, and 60 s). However, gravitactic orientation of the cells was affected at concentrations of 1.25 g l−1 and above when treated with Avans, whereas treatments with Roundup showed no specific changes after short period tests. Velocity of the cells was affected by both herbicides, but the effects of Avans were shown to occur at lower concentrations in comparison to Roundup. Avans showed lower no observable effect concentration (NOEC) values in comparison to Roundup for the different parameters after short period tests. After long period (7 days) tests, NOEC values were similar except for the upward swimming, where Avans had a NOEC value of 100 μg l−1 and Roundup 200 μg l−1. The results demonstrate that Avans containing trimethylsulfonium salt of glyphosate is more toxic to E. gracilis than Roundup, which contained isopropylamine salt of glyphosate.

The application of wood ash from biofuel sources to the forest has been suggested as a source of nutrients for trees and for restoration of acidified soils and surface waters. Studies on the effects of wood ash on aquatic organisms and ecosystems are, however, few. This study investigated the effects of wood ash (0.1–10 g l^− 1) on the freshwater moss Fontinalis antipyretica Hedw., which has previously been shown to be a sensitive test organism for assessing environmental pollution. After nine weeks of treatment with wood ash, a significant effect of enhanced stem growth was observed at higher concentrations (1–10 g l^− 1). The concentration of wood ash was also correlated with the growth of secondary branches. Photosynthesis (oxygen evolution after 4 h of exposure to wood ash) was significantly lower in the alkaline treatments (no pH adjustment) compared to the treatments with neutral wood ash solutions (pH adjusted to 7.5). Furthermore, photosynthesis in the alkaline wood ash treatments was significantly lower compared to the control. The ratio between the optical density value before and after acidification (OD_665/665a) was higher for all wood ash concentrations compared to the control. The OD_665/665a values ranged from 1.52 to 1.61 and there was a difference, however not significant, between the alkaline and the neutral treatment at 10 g l^− 1 wood ash. This study clearly demonstrated that wood ash may be beneficial for F. antipyretica at moderate concentrations (0.5–5 g l^− 1), particularly when a sudden increase in pH is avoided.

The marine algal species in the Baltic Sea are few due to the low sea water salinity. One of the few species that can be found is Fucus vesiculosus. Even this species is affected by the low salinity and becomes smaller in size in the Baltic. In present work the photosynthesis of F. vesiculosus in the northern Baltic (Bothnian Sea) was compared to the photosynthesis of F. vesiculosus in the Atlantic. Oxygen evolution was measured before and after exposure to 2.3 W of UV-B (280–320 nm) radiation for 5 h, as well as after 48 h recovery in low light. The plants were kept in their own sea water salinity as well as in a changed salinity, this to examine possible correlations between salinity and photosynthesis. The results show a significant higher initial maximal photosynthesis (P max) for Atlantic plants (10.3 nmol O2 g−1 FW s−1) compared to Baltic plants (4.0 nmol O2 g−1 FW s−1). The Baltic plants were found more sensitive to UV-B with a 40–50% decrease of P max as well as a lower degree of recovery (60–70% compared to 75–95% for the Atlantic plants). The higher salinity (35 psu) had a positive effect on the Baltic F. vesiculosus with increased P max as well as increased tolerance to UV-B. The lower salinity (5 psu) had a negative effect on the Atlantic plants with a decreased P max as well as a lower tolerance to UV-B. Pigment content was found higher in Atlantic F. vesiculosus. The pigment content decreased then the Atlantic plants were transferred to 5 psu. The concentration of Chl a as well as the total content of violaxanthin, diadinoxanthin and zeaxanthin in Baltic plants increased when transferred to 35 psu. The Atlantic F. vesiculosus can not survive the low salinity in the northern Baltic (died within 8 weeks). It is likely that a long time acclimation or adaptation to low salinity has taken place for F. vesiculosus in northern Baltic. If this is an ecotypic or genotypic development it is too early to say.

The dinoflagellates constitute a group within the protistan supergroup Alveolata, and can be referred neither to the plant nor the animal kingdom. They swim about using two flagella and orient using various stimuli. About half of the species are capable of oxygenic photosynthesis, but most of them complement this with capture of prey. Some live entirely by capturing small organisms, others are parasites. Some species are able to emit light. The group has a long evolutionary history, and almost as many extinct species as extant ones have been described. Remarkable is the way the photosynthetically potent dinoflagellates have acquired their chloroplasts by endosymbiosis with photosynthetic organisms from many different groups. In some cases repeated endosymbiotic events have taken place.

Wood ash application (WAA) to the forest has been suggested as a resource of nutrients for trees and for restoration of acidified soils and surface waters. However, studies of the effects of WAA on aquatic systems are few. This study investigated the effects of wood ash (1–25 g L⁻¹) on the unicellular flagellate Euglena gracilis, which has been proved to be a sensitive test organism for assessing environmental change. Long-term (7 days) growth studies and short-term (direct, 24 and 48 h) studies of different motile factors, using the automatic biological test system Ecotox, were conducted. The results show no indication of biotoxic effects due to wood ash (adjusted to neutral) treatments. However, when no adjustments of pH in wood ash solutions were made, inhibitory effects on motile factors and cell growth were observed at higher concentrations of wood ash (10–25 g L⁻¹) due to high pH (> 8). In tests with pH adjusted to neutral, enhanced motility was observed. These results indicate that high concentration of WAA could affect freshwater environments.

Wood ash application has been suggested as a means to mitigate acidification of surface waters. However little is known about the effects of wood ash to freshwater organisms. A Clark-type oxygen electrode was used to investigate the effects of wood ash, cadmium and aluminum on the respiration of the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex (L.). Harmful effects following wood ash addition were primarily found to be explained by elevated pH. At high concentrations (> 1g/l) of wood ash the respiration of G. pulex decreased when no adjustment of pH was made, a response that was negatively correlated to the elevated pH (r = −0.43). An ion-related response was also detected in the pH-adjusted (pH 7) tests, although it was not statistically significant. Cadmium proved to be sublethal in the range of 0.2–0.4 mg/l in a 24-h exposure. Mortality was 100 % at 0.5 and 1.0 mg Cd/l. No effects were detected after exposure to Al, due to the high pH (pH 7–8) of the solutions and the subsequently low concentrations of labile monomeric Al. We demonstrate that the method described in this paper could be a useful probe for the detection of sublethal concentrations of contaminants in freshwater ecosystems.

The present review aims to summarize current knowledge in the topic of wood ash application to boreal forest and aquatic ecosystems, and the different effects derived from these actions. Much research has been conducted regarding the effects of wood ash application on forest growth. Present studies show that, generally speaking, forest growth can be increased on wood ash–ameliorated peatland rich in nitrogen. On mineral soils, however, no change or even decreased growth have been reported. The effects on ground vegetation are not very clear, as well as the effects on fungi, soil microbes, and soil‐decomposing animals. The discrepancies between different studies are for the most part explained by abiotic factors such as variation in fertility among sites, different degrees of stabilization, and wood ash dosage used, and different time scales among different studies. The lack of knowledge in the field of aquatic ecosystems and their response to ash application is an important issue for future research. The few studies conducted have mainly considered changes in water chemistry. The biotoxic effects of ash application can roughly be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. Among the primary effects is toxicity deriving from compounds in the wood ash and cadmium is probably the worst among these. The secondary effects of wood ash are generally due to its alkaline capacity and a release of ions into the soil and soil water, and finally, watercourses and lakes. Given current knowledge, we would recommend site‐ and wood ash–specific application practices, rather than broad and general guidelines for wood ash application to forests.

The interest in testing of water and wastewater for toxic compounds has increased in the last few years with rising pollutant levels from industry and with rising sensibility towards environmental problems. In order to get an early warning signal of environmental conditions the use of unicellular organism are recommended since they respond quickly and are easy to handle. An early warning system, called ECOTOX, for monitoring of water quality has been developed by a research group in Germany (Prof. D.-P. Häder). ECOTOX use movement parameters of the flagellate Euglena gracilis as orientation in the gravity field, the motility and the velocity of the cells. These parameters have been found to be sensitive to toxic compounds. In the present study it was shown that cadmium affect gravitaxis, motility, velocity and compactness of the cells negatively in the concentration interval of 10 to 15 mg l-1 after 24 and 48 h. After short time of incubation (minutes) with cadmium there is an inhibition of the different movements parameters starting at the concentration of 25 mg l-1. Like other biomonitoring systems ECOTOX can be used to detect changes in quality of aquatic systems.

The effect of different wavebands of artificial UV (UVB and UVA) and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was assessed in two species of the genus Ulva, U. olivascens and U. rotundata, from southern Spain in order to test for possible differences in acclimation of photosynthesis. Both species share similar morphology but are subject to different light environments: U. rotundata is an estuarine alga, inhabiting subtidal locations, while U. olivascens is an intertidal, sun-adapted organism. Algae were exposed to three different UV conditions, PAR + UVA + UVB, PAR + UVA and PAR for 7 d. Short-term exposure (6 h) was also carried out, using two PAR levels, 150 and 700 μmol m−2 s−1. Pigment contents and photosynthesis vs. irradiance curves from oxygen evolution were used to contrast sun- and shade adaptation between these species. O2-based net photosynthesis (Pmax) and PAM-chlorophyll fluorescence (optimal quantum yield, Fv/Fm) were used as parameters to evaluate photoinhibition of photosynthesis in the experiments. The results underline different photobiological characteristics among species: the subtidal U. rotundata had higher contents of pigments (Chl a, Chl b and carotenoids) than the sun-adapted U. olivascens, which resulted in higher thallus absorptance and P–I parameters characterized by higher photosynthetic efficiency at limiting irradiances (α) and lower saturating points for photosynthesis (Ek). After 7 d exposure, photoinhibition of Fv/Fm was close to 40–45% in both species. Differences between UV treatments were seen in U. rotundata after 5 d and after 7 d in U. olivascens, in which PAR + UVA impaired strongly photosynthesis (80%). Such patterns were correlated with a progressive decrease in pigment contents, specially chlorophylls. In short-term (6 h) exposures, combinations of UVA + UVB and high PAR level resulted in high rates of photoinhibition of chlorophyll fluorescence (68–92%) in U. rotundata, whereas in U. olivascens photoinhibition ranged between 42% and 53%. Photoinhibition under low PAR combined to UV radiation was lower than observed under high PAR. Net O2–Pmax revealed similar response among the species, with maximal photoinhibition rates close to 60% in algae incubated under high PAR + UVA + UVB. In the case of UV exposure in combination with low PAR, the highest photoinhibition rates were measured in U. rotundata.

Effects of short‐term (1 h exposure) and long‐term (7 d exposure) aluminium stress on photosynthesis and reproductive capacity have been studied in Euglena gracilis strain Z. Following concentrations of Al_tot (added as AlCl₃) were tested: 0.5 mg L^‐1, 1.0 mg L^‐1, 1.5 mg L^‐1, 2.5 mg L^‐1, 5.0 mg L^‐1, 7.5 mg L^‐1, 10.0 mg L^‐1, and 15.0 mg L^‐1 Al, respectively. Growth rates at different aluminium concentrations did not show significant differences, except at 15.0 mg L^‐1Al. Initial respiration was higher in long‐term than in the short‐term experiments. It is supposed that an energy‐dependent mechanism of excretion of aluminium ions has been active in the stressed cells. Consequently, the cells of E. gracilis after long‐term exposure to aluminium are believed to be more acclimatised to the aluminium stress. Photosynthetic efficiency (PE) has been negatively affected by aluminium in all experiments performed. Differences between control algae and those treated with aluminium were significant in all cases. PE in long‐term experiments was in general significantly higher at all concentrations of aluminium studied, compared to the short‐term experiments. The aluminium concentrations tested led only to a general decrease in PE while the level of decrease was not especially concentration‐dependent. In general, aluminium tolerance of E. gracilis can be estimated as low, especially by short‐term exposure. However, good acclimatisation capacity of this green flagellate to aluminium doses by long‐term exposure can be supposed.

The responses of the growth rate, motility, and cell shape in the green flagellate Euglena gracilis to different concentrations of waste water substances from the pulp and paper industry were tested in a long‐term study (7 days). Samples before (uncleaned sample) and after (cleaned sample) the treatment in a cleaning system were studied. The influence of different doses of UV‐B radiation on cell shape and motility was also investigated. No statistically significant effects of increasing concentrations of the waste substances both before and after the cleaning process (except inhibition by the undiluted uncleaned effluent) on the growth rate in E. gracilis were observed. Cell shape turned out to be an unreliable physiological parameter for assessing the toxicity at lower concentrations of waste water substances. No significant patterns could be observed in the response of the cell shape to the different concentrations of the waste water substances or to UV‐B radiation. Motility has been concluded to be a more sensitive parameter than cell shape. However, no clear patterns were observed in the response of the motility to the different concentrations of the waste water substances studied. Increasing concentrations of the uncleaned sample demonstrated a defense against UV‐B radiation, due to the high absorbance in the UV‐B range, when effects on motility were examined. We conclude that contrary to the results reported in the literature earlier, cell shape and motility of E. gracilis are not universal physiological parameters for bioassessment at lower concentrations of toxic substances, including metals such as copper and zinc from the pulp and paper industry. The long‐duration tests had, in general, higher significance than those of short duration.

The simultaneous behaviour of seven ecological indices(Hurlbert’s, Margalef’s, Menhinick’s, Shannon’s,species number, Jaccard’s and saprobic index) wasstudied based on phytoplankton data close to the shoreon the East coast of Sweden during the summer 1998.The sampling stations had a similar eutrophicationlevel and were located in bays. Standard phytoplanktondatabases were used in calculating the indices, whichwere later compared using cluster analysis.Hurlbert’s, Margalef’s, Menhinick’s, Shannon’s andspecies number indices, as measure of communitydiversity, produced similar trends which oftendiffered from those based on Jaccard’s index ofsimilarity. However, the simultaneous use of theseindices was found meaningful as a possible part of themonitoring close to the shore. The application of asaprobic index lead to erroneous conclusions in thestudied case.