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Ambulance nurses' adherence to prehospital acute chest pain guidelines: Clinical experiences, instrument development, and determinants
Malmö University, Faculty of Health and Society (HS), Department of Care Science (VV).ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7472-1594
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Introduction: Acute chest pain in the prehospital setting demands rapid, guideline-based decision-making. However, ambulance nurses’ adherence remains inconsistent, which can lead to diagnostic delays and omitted treatment, compromising patient safety. Evidence on determinants of adherence among ambulance nurses is limited, whereas most research focuses on patient-related determinants. Moreover, reliable and valid instruments are essential for monitoring adherence to and attitudes towards guidelines. However, no validated, prehospital-specific measures are currently available. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis was to investigate ambulance nurses’ adherence to acute chest pain guidelines by (i) exploring their experiences of using these guidelines, (ii) developing and evaluating instruments to measure adherence to and attitudes towards guideline use, and (iii) examining associations with background and professional characteristics, and (iv) the influence of perceived stress, self-efficacy, and attitudes with adherence.

Methods: Study I used semi-structured interviews with 22 purposively sampled ambulance nurses to explore their experiences of using acute chest pain guidelines. Transcripts were analysed using content analysis. Insights from Study I informed the development of the Adherence Instrument, which assesses adherence to and attitudes towards these guidelines. Study II developed and psychometrically evaluated the Adherence Instrument and Self-Reported Adherence instrument via cognitive interviews (n = 15), an expert review (n = 7), test–retest assessments (n = 63 at test; n = 46 at retest), and a cross-sectional design (n = 261). In parallel, the study also adapted and assessed the Attitudes Regarding Practice Guidelines instrument. Studies III–IV analysed the crosssectional dataset obtained in Study II (n = 261). Study III examined self-reported adherence through stepwise linear regression, following preliminary bivariate analyses including Pearson correlations, independent samples t-tests, and Pearson’s chi-square test. In Study IV, associations were examined using Pearson correlations and subsequently modelled with multiple linear regression. Group differences were analysed using an independent samples t-test and a one-way ANOVA.

Results: Study I showed two overarching categories. Sense of Professional Obligation captured role clarity, interprofessional collaboration, and the need for feedback. Clinical Challenges Using Guidelines captured ambiguous presentations, unclear protocols, and logistical constraints. Study II developed and evaluated the Adherence Instrument, comprising five attitudinal components: Professional Evidence-Based Practice, Assessment of Symptoms, Confidence in Skills, Clinical Autonomy, and Guideline Clarity & Education, with acceptable validity and reliability. Additionally, the adapted Attitudes Regarding Practice Guidelines and the Self-Reported Adherence instruments showed adequate psychometric properties, including validity and reliability. Study III showed that adherence to acute chest pain guidelines was not consistent, as only half of the ambulance nurses reported always giving aspirin to patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome. Older, more experienced ambulance nurses reported higher adherence, and those who prioritised and favoured the guidelines also had higher scores, whereas sex and specialist education were not associated with adherence. Predictors of adherence were age and the extent to which ambulance nurses prioritised the guidelines; mobile applications were the primary source of guideline information. Study IV found that adherence was associated with more positive attitudes towards the guidelines. The Adherence Instrument’s attitudinal components, Confidence in Skills and Professional Evidence-Based Practice, independently predicted adherence. Higher perceived stress was associated with less favourable attitudes, particularly in the attitudinal components of Assessment of Symptoms and Guideline Clarity & Education, whereas higher self-efficacy was associated with more favourable attitudes. However, neither stress nor self-efficacy demonstrated a significant direct association with adherence. Stress was more pronounced among younger ambulance nurses, women, and non-specialist ambulance nurses, whereas older age and specialist education were associated with higher self-efficacy, lower stress, and more positive attitudes.

Conclusion: This thesis demonstrates that key recommendations in prehospital acute chest pain care, especially early aspirin treatment, are not consistently followed, despite ambulance nurses expressing a strong commitment to providing safe and equal care. The Adherence Instrument was developed as a prehospitalspecific instrument assessing attitudinal components related to the use of acute chest pain guidelines. Ambulance nurses who had more positive attitudes towards guidelines, more often based their clinical decisions on guideline recommendations, felt more confident in managing acute chest pain, and were more likely to adhere to the guidelines. Perceived stress and lower self-efficacy appeared to influence adherence mainly indirectly, by affecting these attitudes. Variations in age, professional experience, and education imply that some groups of ambulance nurses might benefit from more targeted education and organisational support. Overall, these findings suggest that more consistent care, in line with prehospital acute chest pain guidelines, may be achieved by strengthening ambulance nurses’ attitudes towards guideline use, enhancing skills and confidence in managing acute chest pain, and improving organisational support and resources, together with systematic follow-up using the Adherence Instrument.

Abstract [sv]

Akut bröstsmärta hör till de vanligaste 112-samtalen och står för cirka 10–15 procent av alla ambulansuppdrag. Ambulanssjuksköterskan är ofta patientens allra första medicinska kontakt. De första minuterna är avgörande och tidig,korrekt behandling redan i ambulansen räddar liv. Riktlinjerna för ambulanssjukvård ska, med evidensbaserade steg, minska variation i besluten och korta vägen till rätt behandling. Trots tydliga riktlinjer visar både tidigare forskning och denna avhandling att följsamheten i den prehospitala vården (alltså den vård som ges innan patienten kommer till ett sjukhus) varierar. Viktiga tidiga åtgärder, såsom läkemedelsbehandling vid misstänkt hjärtinfarkt, ges inte alltid i ambulansen, och många patienter får inte full rekommenderad behandling förrän efter ankomst till sjukhus. Detta kan innebära fördröjd vård och i förlängningen ökad risk för onödigt lidande och sämre utfall.

Mot denna bakgrund undersöker avhandlingen ambulanssjuksköterskors följsamhet till riktlinjer ur flera perspektiv. Detta görs i fyra delstudier med olika metoder. I delstudie I intervjuades ambulanssjuksköterskor om sina erfarenheter av att arbeta enligt riktlinjerna. Totalt deltog 22 personer. Resultaten visade tvåtydliga mönster: dels en stark professionell plikt som främjar följsamhet, dels konkreta hinder i praktiken som motverkar följsamhet. När symtombilden är diffus, gränsfall oklara och återkoppling saknas blir riktlinjer svåra att tillämpa, och erfarenhetsbaserade bedömningar får då ofta företräde.

För att bättre förstå vad som gör att riktlinjer följs utvecklades och prövades flera frågeformulär. Formulären byggde på resultat från den första delstudien och användes för att mäta både följsamhet till riktlinjer och mer övergripande attityder till riktlinjeanvändning. Utvecklingen av formulären skedde i flera steg för att säkerställa att frågorna var begripliga och fungerade som avsett: intervjuer genomfördes med 15 personer; innehållets relevans bedömdes av sju experter; en undersökning gjordes för att se om svaren blev liknande när samma personer svarade vid två tillfällen (63 respektive 47 personer); och slutligen testades formulären i en större enkätundersökning med 261 deltagare. Resultaten visade att formulären fungerade väl och gav tillförlitliga mätningar.

Delstudie III och IV bygger på det frågeformulär som utvecklats och prövats i delstudie II. Båda delstudierna genomfördes som enkätstudier och riktades till alla ambulanssjuksköterskor i Region Skåne (397 personer). I delstudie III undersöktes hur följsamheten till riktlinjerna faktiskt såg ut och om den var kopplad till bakgrund och yrkeserfarenhet. Resultaten visar att det finns ett tydligt förbättringsutrymme, särskilt när det gäller att ge läkemedlet aspirin. Ungefär hälften uppgav att de alltid ger aspirin vid misstänkt hjärtinfarkt. Hög följsamhet kännetecknades av tydlig prioritering av riktlinjer och högre ålder. Längre erfarenhet, både som sjuksköterska och som specialistsjuksköterska, hängde också ihop med högre följsamhet. Däremot sågs inga tydliga skillnader kopplade till kön eller till om man hade en specialistutbildning. De flesta ambulanssjuksköterskor uppgav mobilappar som sin främsta källa till information om riktlinjer.

I delstudie IV undersöktes sambandet mellan stress, självtillit (tilltro till den egna förmågan), attityder till riktlinjer och följsamhet. Yngre deltagare och kvinnor rapporterade mer stress, medan män uppgav något högre självtillit. Specialistsjuksköterskor rapporterade lägre stress och högre självtillit och hade mer positiva attityder till riktlinjer än grundutbildade sjuksköterskor. Mer stress var kopplat till mindre positiva attityder, särskilt i frågor som rörde symtombedömning samt riktlinjernas tydlighet, och till utbildning. Stress hade däremot inget tydligt direkt samband med följsamhet. Högre självtillit hängde ihop med mer positiva attityder. Den tydligaste kopplingen till följsamhet fanns i attityder som rörde evidensbaserad praktik och tilltro till de egna kliniska färdigheterna.

Sammantaget visar avhandlingen att följsamheten till riktlinjer för akut bröstsmärta behöver stärkas. Ett särskilt svagt steg verkar vara övergången från att ha identifierat misstänkt hjärtinfarkt till att också ge rekommenderad läkemedelsbehandling i tid. Skillnaderna verkar handla mindre om tillgång till information och mer om hur riktlinjer tolkas och omsätts i praktisk handling när det är bråttom och osäkert. Attityder till riktlinjer, en evidensbaserad hållning och tilltro till den egna kliniska förmågan framstår som centrala faktorer för om rekommenderad behandling faktiskt ges. Stress, ålder, erfarenhet och specialistutbildning tycks i första hand påverka dessa attityder och denna självtillit.

I linje med tidigare forskning pekar avhandlingen på att tydligare och mer situationsanpassade riktlinjer kan underlätta korrekt handläggning i den prehospitala vardagen. Resultaten visar också att upplevd stress, självförtroende i kliniska färdigheter och attityder till riktlinjeanvändning skiljer sig mellan grupper av ambulanssjuksköterskor. Särskilt yngre och mindre erfarna sjuksköterskor samt de utan specialistutbildning rapporterade högre stress och lägre självtillit, vilket var förknippat med mindre gynnsamma attityder till riktlinjer. Sammantaget tyder detta på att insatser som stärker klinisk självtillit och gör riktlinjer mer användbara i den prehospitala kontexten kan bidra till ökad följsamhet, och därigenom till att rekommenderade åtgärder genomförs mer konsekvent när de behövs.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Malmö: Malmö University Press, 2026. , p. 101
Series
Malmö University Health and Society Dissertations, ISSN 1653-5383, E-ISSN 2004-9277 ; 2026:3
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-82648DOI: 10.24834/isbn.9789178777136ISBN: 978-91-7877-712-9 (print)ISBN: 978-91-7877-713-6 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:mau-82648DiVA, id: diva2:2038132
Public defence
2026-03-20, Allmänna sjukhuset, HS Aula, Jan Waldenströms gata 25, Malmö, 09:00
Opponent
Supervisors
Note

Paper 4 is unpublished and is not included in the digital version of the dissertation. 

Available from: 2026-02-12 Created: 2026-02-12 Last updated: 2026-02-27Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Ambulance nurses' experiences of using prehospital guidelines for patients with acute chest pain - A qualitative study.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Ambulance nurses' experiences of using prehospital guidelines for patients with acute chest pain - A qualitative study.
2022 (English)In: International Emergency Nursing, ISSN 1755-599X, E-ISSN 1878-013X, Vol. 63, p. 1-7, article id 101195Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BACKGROUND: Ambulance nurses have an important role in early recognition and treatment often being the first medical contact for patients with acute chest pain. However, there is sparse knowledge on the experiences of ambulance nurses with regard to use of Prehospital Guidelines for patients with Acute Chest Pain.

AIM: To explore ambulance nurses' experiences of using prehospital guidelines for patients with acute coronary syndrome.

METHOD: A qualitative descriptive study design. Semi-structured interviews with 22 ambulance nurses recruited through purposive sampling strategy. The material was transcribed and analysed using content analysis.

RESULTS: Two main categories emerged from the results. The first category Sense of professional obligation included experiences of having an important role in caring for patients with acute chest pain. Understanding this role and the collaboration in the chain of care prompted ambulance nurses to adhere to the guidelines. However, not receiving enough feedback on the provided care made them uncertain whether to use guidelines. The second category Clinical difficulties using guidelines consisted of experiences of being surrounded by practical challenges while using guidelines. Ambulance nurses meet these challenges by relying on their clinical experience, which sometimes led to them deviating from the guidelines.

CONCLUSIONS: The ambulance nurses experienced a mixture of feeling secure and insecure when using the guidelines. Foremost, when encountering patients with unspecific chest pain, they felt a lack of feedback and an insufficient collaboration within the chain of care, which made them deviate from guidelines. To increase adherence in guidelines, post-registration education to update the knowledge and skills about guidelines for acute chest pain is needed followed by formal inter-disciplinary feedback on the care provided.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2022
Keywords
Ambulance nurses, Chest pain, Guideline adherence, Myocardial infarction, Prehospital care, Qualitative research
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-54130 (URN)10.1016/j.ienj.2022.101195 (DOI)000836194400003 ()35802956 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85133702998 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2022-08-02 Created: 2022-08-02 Last updated: 2026-02-12Bibliographically approved
2. Development and psychometric evaluation of an instrument measuring ambulance nurses' adherence and attitudes to acute chest pain guidelines
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Development and psychometric evaluation of an instrument measuring ambulance nurses' adherence and attitudes to acute chest pain guidelines
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2024 (English)In: BMC Nursing, E-ISSN 1472-6955, Vol. 23, no 1, article id 934Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

BACKGROUND: Effective prehospital care for acute chest pain critically relies on ambulance nurses' adherence to clinical guidelines. However, current adherence is inadequate, with no instruments available to improve the situation. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and psychometrically evaluate an instrument measuring ambulance nurses' adherence to and attitudes towards acute chest pain guidelines, and to adapt and test the Attitudes Regarding Practice Guidelines instrument for measuring general attitudes towards guidelines.

METHODS: An instrument development design was used. A 49-item Adherence Instrument was initially developed for measuring adherence to and attitudes towards acute chest pain guidelines and the 18-item Attitudes Regarding Practice Guidelines instrument was translated into Swedish. Both instruments were validated through cognitive interviews and expert reviews. To ascertain its reliability, a test‒retest was conducted. The construct validity of the Adherence Instrument was assessed via principal component analysis on the basis of a polychoric correlation matrix.

RESULTS: The developed Adherence Instrument was refined to 18 items and showed strong validity and reliability. Similarly, the Attitudes Regarding Practice Guidelines instrument, refined to 12 items, demonstrated strong validity and reliability. Principal component analysis of the Adherence Instrument identified five components: professional evidence-based practice, assessment of symptoms, confidence in skills, clinical autonomy, and guideline clarity and education. These components accounted for 64.5% of the total variance and demonstrated strong reliability, with an ordinal alpha of 0.84 for the entire scale.

CONCLUSION: The psychometric properties of the Adherence Instrument were satisfactory and will be useful in prehospital emergency care to measure attitudes and adherence towards acute chest pain guidelines.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BioMed Central (BMC), 2024
Keywords
Ambulance nursing, Chest pain, Clinical guidelines, Instrument development
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-72906 (URN)10.1186/s12912-024-02615-3 (DOI)001381570300002 ()39707335 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85212703857 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2025-01-07 Created: 2025-01-07 Last updated: 2026-02-12Bibliographically approved
3. Self-reported adherence of ambulance nurses to acute chest pain guidelines in Southern Sweden: a cross-sectional study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Self-reported adherence of ambulance nurses to acute chest pain guidelines in Southern Sweden: a cross-sectional study
Show others...
2026 (English)In: BMJ Open, E-ISSN 2044-6055, Vol. 16, no 1, article id e110199Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

OBJECTIVE: To examine the self-reported adherence of ambulance nurses to acute chest pain guidelines and analyse how demographic and professional characteristics influence this adherence.

DESIGN: Cross-sectional study.

SETTING: Regional ambulance service in southern Sweden (18 ambulance stations).

PARTICIPANTS: Ambulance nurses (registered and specialist nurses). Of the 397 ambulance nurses invited, 261 responded (65.7%) in 2023.

DATA ANALYSIS: Descriptive statistics; independent-samples t-tests and χ2 tests for group comparisons; Pearson correlation; and stepwise linear regression to identify predictors of adherence.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary: adherence to the prehospital acute chest pain guideline, measured with the 5-item Self-Reported Adherence scale (5-25). Secondary: medication-specific adherence; guideline-access sources.

METHOD: A cross-sectional study involving 261 ambulance nurses from 18 ambulance stations in southern Sweden. Adherence to acute chest pain guidelines was assessed using a validated instrument. Data collected in autumn 2023 were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics, including stepwise linear regression analysis.

RESULTS: The study revealed an average self-reported adherence score of 19.2 out of 25 for acute chest pain guidelines. Mobile applications were the most commonly used source for accessing acute chest pain guidelines, while ambulance managers were the least used. Notably, older and more experienced ambulance nurses reported higher adherence scores. Additionally, a positive attitude towards the guidelines was correlated with higher adherence. Prioritisation of guidelines and age were predictors of adherence. In contrast, other demographic variables, such as sex and specialist nursing education, were not found to be associated with adherence.

CONCLUSION: The study indicates that self-reported adherence to acute chest pain guidelines among ambulance nurses is influenced by how highly they prioritise these guidelines and by their attitudes towards them, as well as their age and professional experience. Enhancing educational programmes and digital resources, particularly for younger and less experienced nurses, may improve adherence and patient outcomes in prehospital settings.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 2026
Keywords
Humans, Cross-Sectional Studies, Sweden, Guideline Adherence / statistics & numerical data, Female, Male, Chest Pain / nursing, Ambulances, Adult, Self Report, Middle Aged, Emergency Medical Services / standards, Practice Guidelines as Topic, Nurses, CARDIOLOGY, Clinical Decision-Making, Clinical Protocols
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-82204 (URN)10.1136/bmjopen-2025-110199 (DOI)001669127900001 ()41571421 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105028343893 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2026-01-26 Created: 2026-01-26 Last updated: 2026-02-12Bibliographically approved
4. Perceived Stress, Self-efficacy, Attitudes, and Guideline Adherence in Prehospital Acute Chest Pain Management: A Cross-Sectional Study of Ambulance Nurses
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Perceived Stress, Self-efficacy, Attitudes, and Guideline Adherence in Prehospital Acute Chest Pain Management: A Cross-Sectional Study of Ambulance Nurses
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Nursing
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-82647 (URN)
Available from: 2026-02-12 Created: 2026-02-12 Last updated: 2026-02-12Bibliographically approved

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