The aim of this study is to describe the experiences of children’s social workers in Sweden who work with families in which a parent suffers from serious mental illness, and how a child in such a family receives support. Data were collected through individual interviews and focus groups discussions with 13 professionals in 2 minor municipalities in southern Sweden. Interviewees stated that parental serious mental illness was not a main focus for children’s social workers. When parental serious mental illness became a barrier to caring for their children, the children’s social workers sought to collaborate with psychiatric services, but in many cases it did not turn out well. Providing support to the parent was one way of aiding the family, although at the price of setting the child’s perspective aside. Being faced with responsibility for the parent and the child left children’s social workers feeling they were the last outpost for the families. Children’s social workers require greater knowledge of how to handle parental serious mental illness, and more interagency collaboration with psychiatric services is needed to adequately support children of parents with a serious mental illness. Keywords: children of parents with serious mental illness; parental serious mental illness; children’s social workers; psychiatric services

Introduction: Although research has shown that evidence-based family interventions in research settings improve the communication and understanding of parental mental illness, there is a lack of knowledge about interventions in an everyday clinical context. Aim: This study explores how families with parental mental illness experience family interventions in a natural clinical context in psychiatric services. Method: Five families with children aged 10–12 were recruited from psychiatric services in southern Sweden and interviewed in a manner inspired by naturalistic inquiry and content analysis. Both family and individual interviews were performed. Results: In striving to lead an ordinary life while coping with the parental mental illness, these families sought the support of the psychiatric services, especially in order to inform their children about the mental illness. Despite different family interventions, the family members felt supported and reported that the number of conflicts in the family had decreased. The parents were appreciative of help with child-rearing questions, and the children experienced a calmer family atmosphere. However, the partner of the person with mental illness experienced being left without support. Implications for practice: Our study shows that psychiatric services, and especially mental health nurses, are in a position to more regularly offer family interventions in supporting the children and the healthy partners.

Abstract Background: Children of parents with a mental illness need support from adult psychiatric services. Efforts have been made to enhance the knowledge of practitioners in this field so that they may work in a more family- oriented manner and to include children in the therapeutic services they provide. Aim: This study investigates how adult psychiatry services works with families and children when a parent has a mental illness. Method: Twenty-four Swedish professional care providers were interviewed individually or in focus groups. Data was analyzed using an inductive content method. Results: Although the professionals knew that their patients had minor children, they still prioritized the individual relationship they had with the parent. Few efforts were made to include both children and families in the treatment offered, and when this happened it was done at the professional’s own discretion. Conclusion: Despite the mandatory Swedish obligation to pay attention to a patient’s children, our study showed that professionals tend to fall short in this regard. Adult psychiatry services needs to strengthen family -oriented work in order to provide support to such children. Keywords: Minor children; Parents with mental illness; Adult psychiatric services; Family therapy

BACKGROUND: In Sweden expectant fathers are now assumed to be active participants in pregnancy and birth, but few studies have focused on fathers' expectations of antenatal care. Knowledge of expectant fathers' views about what is important in antenatal care will enable the design of care that is more inclusive and meets the expectant fathers' needs. OBJECTIVES: To identify expectant fathers' expectations regarding the content of antenatal care during pregnancy and to examine associations between expectations and social factors. METHODS: The current study uses data from a quasi-experimental trial that took place from 2009 to 2010, in which 627 expectant fathers were recruited from different parts of Sweden. RESULTS: Checking the health of the baby (85.3%) and the mother (80.8%) were rated highest in importance by expectant fathers, whereas attending parent classes (14.9%), becoming acquainted with other expectant parents (7.0%) and paying attention to their own emotional well-being (6.9%) were rated lowest. Furthermore, less than half of the expectant fathers had a very high expectation of being treated in a way that made them feel involved (38.5%).First-time fathers, young fathers and fathers with very good emotional health had higher expectations about most aspects of antenatal care. CONCLUSION: Expectant fathers had low expectations of receiving support or of meeting other parents as they thought that antenatal care should have a medical focus. First-time fathers, young fathers and fathers with very good emotional health had higher expectations of antenatal care in most areas.

Reproductive decision-making and fertility patterns change with time and place, and are influenced by contemporary societal factors. In this paper, we have studied biosocial aspects of reproductive decision-making over time and generations in a Nordic setting. The aim was to explore intergenerational changes and influences on decision-making, especially regarding preconditions to first birth. Twenty-six focus group interviews were conducted in southern Sweden, including a total of 110 participants aged 17–90 years. The analysis of the interviews resulted in six themes: (i) ‘Providing security – an intergenerational precondition’; (ii) ‘A growing smorgasbord of choices and requirements’; (iii) ‘Parenthood becoming a project’; (iv) ‘Stretched out life stages’; (v) ‘(Im)possibilities to procreate’; and (vi) ‘Intergenerational pronatalism’. Our findings reflect increasing expectations on what it means to be prepared for parenthood. Despite increasing awareness of the precariousness of romantic relationships, people still wish to build new families but try to be as prepared as possible for adverse events. The findings also show how increasing life expectancy and medical advancements have come to influence people’s views on their reproductive timeline.

Research on reproductive decision-making mainly focuses on women's experiences and desire for children. Men included in this type of research usually represent one-half of a heterosexual couple and/or men who are involuntarily childless. Perspectives from a broader group of men are lacking. This study is based on the results of a baseline questionnaire answered by 191 men aged 20–50 years who attended two sexual health clinics in two major Swedish cities. The questionnaire included questions about sociodemographic background, reproductive history and fertility, but also two open-ended questions focusing on reasons for having or not having children. The results of these two questions were analysed by manifest content analysis and resulted in five categories: ‘(non-)ideal images’, ‘to pass something on’, ‘personal development and self-image’, ‘the relationship with the (potential) co-parent’ and ‘practical circumstances and prerequisites’. Reasons for having children were mainly based on ideal images of children, family and parenthood. Meanwhile, reasons for not having children usually concerned practical issues. The type of answer given was related to men's procreative intentions but not to background characteristics. In conclusion, men raised many different aspects for and against having children. Therefore, reproductive decision-making should not be considered a non-choice among men.

Being aware of factors that affect fertility can help people make informed decisions about their reproductive futures. To some, however, fertility information leads to worry and self-blame. In this paper, we explore how people from different generations discuss fertility and reproductive decision-making, along with their perceptions of fertility information. The study was conducted in southern Sweden with 26 focus-group discussions that included a total of 110 participants aged 17-90 years. The material was analysed thematically. Our results show that fertility knowledge and openness to talking about fertility problems have increased over generations. Participants who were assigned female at birth were more often concerned about their fertility than those who were not, and fertility concerns were transferred from mothers to daughters. While age-related fertility concerns had been uncommon in older generations, participants aged 25-40 often expressed these concerns. Young adults appreciated being knowledgeable about fertility but simultaneously expressed how fertility information could lead to distress. Our conclusion is that fertility information was best received by high-school students, and efforts to improve fertility education in schools are therefore recommended.

The Swedish welfare state has for a long time been distinctive in developing radical social policies in the area of reproduction, particularly as far as children are concerned. For more than 30 years, the government has implemented a family policy with the clear aim of gender equality, with parental insurance and public childcare being two of its most important developments. The potential for working parents in Sweden to successfully combine work and family life is good. The number of working mothers has increased in recent decades, and at the same time, relatively high fertility rates (see Chapter 4) have been maintained, although with considerable fluctuations. For many years, Sweden has had a high percentage of working mothers, and 80 per cent of women aged 25–54 with two children or more are currently in work, with 60 per cent of them employed in the public sector (Fagnani et al., 2004). 

The purpose of this study was to review articles about parenthood and the internet published in the medical, educational, and social sciences. The aim was to identify themes and trends in the available literature. A building block strategy was designed and used to achieve a high recall rate. By searching PubMed, ERIC, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, and Social Services Abstracts, 484 articles were retrieved. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were set to identify relevant articles. A sample comprising 94 articles was considered relevant in relation to the topic. We found that since the field of research was opened in 1997, there has been an increased interest for the topic from a variety of academic disciplines in various countries. Four themes were found in the body of literature: web site analysis, user patterns, online support groups, and interventions. In the first years, researchers were occupied with listing useful web sites for parents and analyzed them regarding quality and accuracy. After that a clearer focus on parents’ online user patterns emerged, followed by an interest for online support groups. More recently, there has been an increase in using the internet for various interventions.

Social workers often fail to engage fathers in child protection investigations (CPIs), especially when they involve domestic abuse (DA) by fathers. The aim of this study is to examine the strategies used by social workers to achieve cooperation with fathers in CPIs that involve the father being suspected of DA against the child's mother. With the use of qualitative methods, we conducted 31 semi-structured interviews with 15 social workers during their work on 12 CPI cases. Through thematic analysis, two main strategies for achieving cooperation were created: (1) Securing an Initial Bond, which involved reducing the tension in CPI proceedings and affirming the father; (2) Maintaining the Bond while addressing the father's abusive behaviour, which involved negotiating with fathers about the DA and helping them shift their perspective on how their behaviour has impacted the victims. This analysis is rooted in the framework of shame, guilt and social bonds. However, there is a risk that these strategies may lead to the DA being minimized or overlooked. Striking a balance between building a bond and addressing abuse is crucial, and the timing of addressing DA plays a central role. 

The relationship between commercial sex and intimacy has been in focus in a number of studies on the purchase of sex, often distinguishing between one-time visitors and regular customers. This article is based on a study exploring how men who buy sex as one-time visitors navigate between commercialization and intimacy in a Swedish context. Based on interviews with 29 Swedish men purchasing sex, an inductive thematic analysis has been applied. The findings show how the men in this study balance between excitement and trust when purchasing sex, and how trust work is crucial for the purchase of sex not to be experienced as dangerous and instead pleasurable.

Previous research on commercial sex has described fluidity between different forms of relationships, whereby commercial sexual relationships can be both long-term and viewed as intimate from the buyer's perspective. This article explores the construction of intimacy in long-term commercial relationships. More specifically, it examines the meaning of transactions in long-term paid sexual relationships in Sweden. Interviews were conducted with 23 Swedish men with experience purchasing sex as 'regulars'. An inductive thematic analysis was conducted. Findings show that the emotional experience is a key focus for these men when they purchase sex. The emotions involved are not delimited in time and space but are experienced both within and outside of the actual sexual encounter. Such emotions can be understood as the very precondition for the experiences of intimacy, while at the same time they create difficulties for the men who purchase sex. Experiences of intimacy are experienced in the ambiguity between unbounded and bounded authenticity and by not drawing a clear line between emotional subjectivity and consumer subjectivity.

The purpose of this study is to increase knowledge about social workers’ opportunities to work with safer sex among at-risk adolescents and young adults. To investigate this issue, a survey has been sent to outreach work and non-institutional offices whose work focuses on alcohol and drugs to some extent. The survey was sent to 89 workplaces distributed throughout 33 municipalities in the region of Skåne in southern Sweden. Altogether 229 responses were collected, a response rate of 60.1%. The study shows that social workers have limited opportunities to work with safer sex issues and that the organizational resources to support this work are weak. Michael Lipsky’s theory of street-level bureaucrats was applied to the data, with the analysis indicating that knowledge and organizational resources are key to enabling work with safer sex. It is also important that the personnel are interested in the subject and that they feel comfortable working with safer sex. The factors found to have the strongest direct effect on the personnel’s work with safer sex are: having the possibility to set aside time to work with safer sex, experiencing that safer sex is discussed at the workplace and being personally interested in the subject.

The chapter sheds light on the everyday lives of unaccompanied minors. A lit- erature review and a questionnaire answered by the social workers in charge of unaccompanied children’s placement in kinship care constitute the empirical foundation. In addition, a small pilot study has been conducted with some unac- companied minors to get their point of view. A core question is whether these unaccompanied minors in kinship care are more vulnerable than other groups of children in Sweden? On the one hand, yes, as the conditions for placement in kin- ship care have not always been optimal. On the other hand, the results suggest that placement with relatives often are better than other placements. Minors in kinship care have ordinary better health, and kinship care is more stable than other place- ments. The interviewed minors also convey a great sense of security in the kin families as the connection with their ethnic background is so stated. Behind the general picture of kinship care, the minors’ own stories also show a large variation concerning opportunities and conditions for unaccompanied living like this.

Although previous research and public debate argue that partnered sexual activity is construed in terms of being consensual or not, we know little about young people’s own reasoning on sexual consent. This study aimed to investigate how sexual consent and sexual negotiations are interpreted by young people in Sweden. Forty-four female and male participants, ranging from 18–21 years old, took part in 12 focus groups, organised according to a set of vignettes. All focus groups were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. The findings illustrate the complexity of the interpretation of sexual consent. There was a clear perception among the participants that sex between two individuals is a mutual process, and that sex should be consensual, expressed either through words, body language, or both. They all stated clearly that a ‘No’ has to be respected, independently of context. However, at the same time participants expressed contradictory norms and expectations in relation to the described situations, that showed an ambivalence concerning sexual scripts and consequences of challenging these in specific situations. Reasoning concerning discrepancy between ideals and actual possibilities to act in sexual encounters indicates differences in relation to gender, age and educational background and pathways.

Although previous research and public debate argue that partnered sexual activity is construed in terms of being consensual or not, we know little about young people’s own reasoning on sexual consent. This study aimed to investigate how sexual consent and sexual negotiations are interpreted by young people in Sweden. Forty-four female and male participants, ranging from 18–21 years old, took part in 12 focus groups, organised according to a set of vignettes. All focus groups were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. The findings illustrate the complexity of the interpretation of sexual consent. There was a clear perception among the participants that sex between two individuals is a mutual process, and that sex should be consensual, expressed either through words, body language, or both. They all stated clearly that a ‘No’ has to be respected, independently of context. However, at the same time participants expressed contradictory norms and expectations in relation to the described situations, that showed an ambivalence concerning sexual scripts and consequences of challenging these in specific situations. Reasoning concerning discrepancy between ideals and actual possibilities to act in sexual encounters indicates differences in relation to gender, age and educational background and pathways.

The right of children to express their views on matters concerning them is a core principle of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, as defined in Article 12. However, research shows that interventions provided by Swedish child and family welfare services are planned and based on parents' perspectives even though research suggests that child participation results in welfare service provision that is better matched to the children's needs. The aim of this study is to explore how child participation is constructed in interventions provided by Swedish child and family welfare services and to study which elements are of importance to this process. The article is based on a qualitative interview study with 14 family social workers and 11 children aged 7-16 with experience of family interventions provided by the child and family welfare services. The results suggest that child participation is a collaborative process in which both the child and the FSW have an active role to play. Participation is constructed through a series of seemingly small, everyday actions in the meeting between the child and the FSW. By actively asking questions and allowing the child to practice participation and influence the process, the FSW can, together with the child, work towards increased child participation in interventions.

Children have the right to be heard on matters concerning them, but research indicates that children’s participatory rights are not adequately met. The Swedish Child Welfare Services constitute an arena in which a significant portion of open care interventions for children and their families take place, and thus a context in which children’s participation should be realized. This article explores children's actions of participation, and how these can be understood in relation to situational constraints, using the concept of agency. The study is based on social constructionist theory and includes interviews with 11 children aged 7-16. Thematic analysis revealed that children's actions, as described by the children, are formed in relation to situational constraints ranging from actions that are accepted and sometimes encouraged, to actions that challenge the boundaries ofwhat is permitted by their position as children: Permissible actions, Actions beyond the permissible, and Actions that disturb the existing order. The article contributes to a broader understanding of children’s actions of participation in asocial work context.

The aim of this study has been to investigate the potential effects on women’s experiences of their sexuality and their sexual relations after being diagnosed with HIV. The result of the qualitative inter-views with seven women living with HIV, the result of the interviews shows that the fear of transmission is great and constant. The sexual practices adjust in the purpose to reduce the risk of transmission. The fear of rejection and peoples negative reactions was strong if their status would come to attention, which affected their experienc-es of well established and have relationships.

Background: Traditional patterns relating to how to handle pregnancy and birth are often challenged due to migration. The purpose of this study was to describe Middle Eastern mothers’ experiences of the maternal health care services in Sweden and the involvement of their male partner. Methods: Thirteen immigrant mothers from the Middle East who had used the maternal health services in Sweden were interviewed using focus group discussions and individual interviews. These were taped, transcribed and analysed according to Content analysis. Results: The four main categories that developed were: • Access to the professional midwife • Useful counselling • Stable motherhood in transition • Being a family living in a different culture Conclusion: According to the respondents in this study, understanding the woman’s native language or her culture was not vital to develop a good relationship with the midwife. Instead the immigrant woman developed trust in the midwife based on the knowledge and the empathy the midwife imparted. Increasing the amount of first trimester antenatal visits could avoid spontaneous visits to the emergency clinic. There was a greater need for involvement and support by the father during the perinatal period, such as caring for older children and carrying out household chores since the mothers’ earlier female network was often lost. Clinical implicationsThere is a need to involve immigrant parents in the available parental education in order to prepare them for parenthood in their new country as well as to explore their altered family situation. Collecting immigrant women and their partner’s, experiences of maternal health care services offers a possibility to improve the existing care, both in content, access and availability where the timing of visits and content require further evaluation.

Objective: To describe how men from the Middle East experience Swedish maternity and child health care. An integral part of the aim of this study has also been to describe the experiences of men from the Middle East when becoming and being a father in Sweden. Design, setting and participants: an exploratory, qualitative study using focus-group discussions and individual interviews, with a semi-structured interview guide and content analysis. A total of 16 men participated. Ten Arabicspeaking men from the Middle East living in Sweden participated in three focus-group discussions. Six men from the Middle East living in Sweden, and speaking Swedish, participated in individual interviews. Findings: three main categories were developed: meeting empathic professionals; finding new positions within the family; and experiencing social demands. Key conclusions and implications for practice: seeing their partners being met individually and with empathy by midwives and child health-care nurses encouraged men to become involved in areas not previously open to them (i.e. pregnancy, childbirth and the care of babies and young children). As the women often lacked knowledge of Swedish, they depended on the help of their partners when meeting maternity and child health-care professionals. The men found the experience of living in an alien country difficult. They were often unemployed, felt they were a burden to their wives after emigrating to Sweden, and that they were no longer a suitable role model for their children. & 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In recent years, the sexual assault of males has received growing attention both in the research literature and among the public. Much of the research has focused on documenting prevalence rates or the psychological consequences of male sexual assault. However, this article aims to understand how men, as gendered, embodied and affective subjects, make sense of their experiences of sexual assault. In-depth interviews with ten adult males who have experienced sexual assault have been analyzed using a phenomenological approach in order to learn more about their lived and gendered experience. Four themes emerged from the analysis: (a) conflicting feelings and difficult conceptualizations, (b) re-experiencing vulnerability, (c) emotional responses and resistance, and (d) disclosure and creativity. The findings suggest that the ways in which men navigate norms of masculinity shape the way they understand, process and articulate their lived experience of sexual assault. As a way of coping with the experience and of healing from a past that is still present, the study participants perform an alternative masculine identity.

Purpose: Studies on sexual health following male child sexual abuse (CSA) have identified the negative effects of such experienceson body functioning, but little is known about male CSA survivors’ ability to create emotional and physical closenessin romantic relationships. The purpose of this article is to explore how male CSA survivors perceive, experience and developintimacy in romantic relationships, including both the challenges they face and the positive changes that enable them to growand achieve healthy relationships.

Method: The study has employed a qualitative research approach and is based on in-depth interviews conducted among adultmale CSA survivors residing in Sweden. Participants were recruited through civil society organizations and an ad in a dailynewspaper. Using reflexive thematic analysis, the results are presented in relation to two themes: (a) challenges of intimacy;and (b) building trust and close relationships.

Results: The results show that participants desired couple relationships that included both sexual and emotional intimacy.The challenges of intimacy were related to compromised sexual identity, sexual dysfunctions and compulsions, emotionaldysregulation, and body shame. Efforts to achieve intimacy were facilitated by disclosing abuse experiences, developingemotional bonds or awareness, embracing sensitivity, and having an empathetic and supportive partner.

Conclusions: Reconstructions of abuse histories were both challenged and facilitated by the accessibility of various and shiftingideas about masculinities that co-exist in Sweden, which were important sources for meaning making and assisted themen in developing positive valuations of themselves as men.

This article discusses how social class and different economic conditions influence men’s parenting. The article is based on a qualitative study of 30 Swedish couples who live together with their biological children. The study shows that, despite the generosity of the Swedish welfare state and family subsidies, both internal and external economic conditions affect the way men construct their fatherhood. This was shown mostly clearly in the couples’ discussions around parental leave where parents under economic pressure often distributed the leave in a gender-traditional way. It was also apparent how traditional class-patterns and structures still have a strong influence on today’s parenthood. Fathers in working-class households often saw fatherhood as creating meaning in their lives and saw the process of becoming a parent as an explicit aspiration to establish something "natural", well-known and predictable. Fathers in middle-class households, on the other hand, considered fatherhood as something new, a reflexive project or a opportunity to develop their identity and to get to know new sides of themselves. In practice, these different ways of creating meaning in fatherhood are illustrated by the finding that working-class fathers tend to take up fewer parental leave days and uphold more traditional patterns of family life than fathers in middle-class households.

In 1994, The International Conference on Population and Development established the importance of involving men in the challenge of improving sexual and reproductive health. Above all the emphasis was placed on developing efforts which would increase the man’s involvement in parenting and measures which could lead to the man taking greater responsibility for his own sexual and reproductive behaviour - ”including family planning and maternal and child health” (UN, 1994). The background for this was a wakening realization that men’s attitudes, knowledge base and ways of reacting not only influenced their own but also women’s reproductive health. Parallel to this development there has also been a growing academic interest in how men live their lives, create their male identities and form relationships to their immediate environment. One context in which these questions are being explored is in the research on men, masculinities and fatherhood. Fatherhood research has increased dramatically during the recent decade and also become a multidisciplinary scientific field of knowledge. Behind this development we can see several major changes in the late modern society, e.g. shifting marriage and divorce patterns and a changing work life with an increasing labour force participation of women. The growth of the women’s movement has also contributed to a strong focus on fatherhood since the possibilities of increasing gender equality in society require increased involvement by men in family life. The result is that today, scientists from different scientific disciplines are studying a broad variety of different perspectives and questions around men’s parenting. The questions at issue are no longer focused only on the topic of how fathers’ behavioural patterns influence their children’s development but are today also focused on the men themselves, their partners and how fatherhood is constructed in everyday practice and in relationships (Plantin, 2003). This means that a number of questions have been raised about men’s parenting, mirroring the positive as well as the problematic sides of it. The challenging and difficult side of men’s parenting has mostly been framed in discussions about “deadbeat dads” or “feckless fathers” that ignore their parenting responsibilities, and how this negatively affects the children’s emotional, psychological and financial well-being. Fathers' shortcomings in taking an equal responsibility for the internal family work and the household tasks is another example of problematic behaviour that has been discussed and related to negative effects on women’s possibilities to combine work and family life. Men and fathers have of course also been discussed in connection with domestic violence and other destructive behaviours that negatively affect their own as well as family health.However, another part of fatherhood research has challenged the deficit perspective on men’s parenting and instead focused on the positive sides of fatherhood that might contribute to better health outcomes. The significance of fathers for the development and well-being of children and adolescents, or the positive meaning of being a father are some examples of topics in this research. Discussions about various policies and legislation to support fathers in becoming more involved in caring for their children are also tightly connected to this perspective. Policies on parental leave or different forms of support to combine work and family life provide better opportunities for men to be more engaged and involved in all parts of domestic life. But more specifically, what do we know about the relationship between fatherhood and health? How can an increasing involvement by fathers in sexual and reproductive health contribute to a better health and well-being for themselves as well as their partners and children? Is there any “evidence” in existing literature that support the idea that men should be more involved during the delivery and the ante- and postnatal care? And what about gender equality and the late modern ideas around the “new, equal and nurturing fatherhood” -what do we know about the health outcomes of this? Do policies that support fathers to be both working fathers and caring men have any health impact on the men, women and children? The aim of this report is to take a closer look at these questions. The report consists of three different sections and starts with a discussion on the methodology for the literature review. It then continues with a chapter on Fatherhood and reproductive health. This chapter has a focus on the expectant and new fathers and discusses what we know about men's experiences of the childbearing decision, pregnancy and the delivery. How can men be supportive and engaged during these different stages in the “father-to-be” –process and how are these experiences related to health outcomes of the mother, child and men themselves? This chapter will end with a section that points out or highlights groups of fathers that might need special support and concern from a health perspective. The next part is called Managing fathering. On fatherhood and health in everyday life. This chapter focuses on fathers’ practices in everyday life and how this can be related to different health outcomes. It starts with a general overview of the research that has studied how becoming a parent, and in this case becoming a father, effect men’s health. Is fatherhood positive for men’s health as it adds a new meaning to life and a healthier way of living, or can it actually have negative effects as it means increased stress, marital conflicts and more worries? This is followed by a section that focuses on the possibilities for men to be both working fathers and caring men. It highlights existing policies for fathers in Europe to combine work and family lifeand investigates whether there is evidence for linking these to positive health outcomes. This includes policies on parental leave, parents’ access to day care and family-friendly policies at the work place. There will also be a special focus on the relations between the work-family boundaries, stress, illness and well-being. The next section will draw upon research studying the internal family life in Europe, with a special focus on men’s participation in child rearing and the household work. The fatherhoodchild relationship and the importance of fathers for children's well-being, health and development are also highlighted. Finally, the report ends with a Summary and end discussion where the main results are highlighted and discussed.

Kärnfamiljen är fortfarande den vanligaste samlevnadsformen i Sverige, men familjemönstren har förändrats dramatiskt under de senaste decennierna. Vid sidan av den traditionella familjebildningen ser vi nu en mångfald av samlevnadsformer. Det handlar om heltids- eller deltidspappan, den homosexuella familjen, ensam morfamiljen, den omgifta länkade familjen, den inflyttade familjen med länkar i flera kulturer och så vidare. Familjen som slutet system har ersatts av Nätverksfamiljen. Med barnen som länkar bildas nya nätverk av relationer och föräldraroller. Invanda levnadsmönster, traditionella roller och könsidentiteter utmanas och ifrågasätts. Nära relationer kan spänna över länder och världsdelar och familjelivet bedrivas virtuellt.

Egentligen borde detta kapitel handla om hur föräldrar i Sverige och Europa kombinerar arbetsliv och familjeliv. Det är nämligen med den forskningen som Margareta och jag har arbetat de senaste sex, sju åren. Så kommer det dock inte att bli. Vi har redan skrivit spaltkilometrar om ämnet och istället har jag här en tanke om att föra samman två av de profiler som utmärker forskningen i socialt arbete på respektive lärosäte; familjeforskningen i Göteborg och sexualitetsforskningen i Malmö. Idén att närmare undersöka vad som händer med sexualiteten när man blir förälder är inte ny, Margareta efterlyste en sådan artikel redan när hon arbetade med boken Nätverksfamiljen i början på 2000-talet. Då fann hon ingen som självklart kunde ansvara för ett sådant kapitel och mycket tyder på att det än idag är ett eftersatt område inom forskningen. Emellanåt träffar jag nämligen studenter som intresserar sig för ämnet i olika uppsatser men alltför ofta konstaterar de att det saknas forskning kring föräldraskap och sexualitet, åtminstone forskning som sträcker sig utanför tiden för graviditet, förlossning och det första året som förälder. Samtidigt är ämnet ständigt återkommande i olika rådgivningsmedia med fokus på föräldraskap. I föräldratidningar, böcker och tv-program ges en uppsjö av tips om hur man kan förgylla sexuallivet trots stressiga vardagsliv och barn som nattetid belägrar föräldrarnas säng. Relationsexperterna brottas med många och svåra frågeställningar kring vardagslivets intimitet: När kan man ha sex efter förlossningen? Hur påverkas sexuallivet av att man lider ständig brist på sömn under småbarnsåren eller rent av att man har tonårsbarn som aldrig går och lägger sig? Hur kan man få det att fungera – föräldraskapet, kärleksrelationen och sexuallivet? Det finns idag många forskare som pekat på att sexualiteten har tagit en allt större plats i den offentliga diskussionen (McNair 2002). Sex har blivit, som Plummer (1995) uttrycker det, ”the Big Story” och massmedia har allt mer sexualiserats. Orsaken är att ’sex säljer’, skulle säkert någon uttrycka det som, och ger kraft att marknadsföra en mängd olika varor. Men bakom denna utveckling skymtar inte bara en ny och djärvare marknadsföring utan en radikalt förändrad syn på intimitet och sexualitet i det senmoderna samhället. Den engelske sociologen Anthony Giddens (1995) menar att intima relationer inte längre behöver bygga på äktenskaplig lycka och evig kärlek till den ende ”rätte”. Istället skapar vi relationer som vilar på en större ömsesidighet frikopplad från kravet på just livslång kärlek, äktenskap och familj. Relationer etableras idag mer för deras egen skull och fortlever bara så länge båda upplever en tillräcklig tillfredsställelse. I denna förskjutning mot en starkare fokus på relation och inte person eller kvalitén snarare än formen för relationen, är strävan efter att uppnå ömsesidig sexuell njutning en viktig faktor för relationens fortlevnad. Erotikens konst, säger Giddens, har hamnat i centrum för de intima relationerna, sexualiteten har starkt sammankopplats med njutning och fått till följd att nutidsmänniskan eftersträvar allt fler sexuella upplevelser. Det finns alltså, summerar han slutligen, ”en upptagenhet av sexualitet i den moderna kulturen” (ibid:153); en tankegång som även är central i Foucaults (1980) banbrytande verk Sexualitetens historia. Men hur avspeglar sig denna utveckling inom ramen för föräldraskapet och de förändringar som det innebär när familjelivet utvidgas från två till flera personer? Vilka upplevelser och erfarenheter har föräldrarna själva av intimitet och sexualitet, vilka frågor är mest centrala för föräldrarna? Avsikten med detta kapitel är att närmare undersöka dessa frågor genom att granska ett diskussionsforum för föräldrar på internet. Men innan vi kommer så långt skall vi först bekanta oss med den tidigare forskningen på området.

This book takes a life course perspective, analysing and comparing the biographies of mothers and fathers in seven European countries in context. Based on an innovative, cross-national EU study, it examines the ways in which working parents negotiate the transition to parenthood and attempt to find a 'work-life balance'. Using in-depth qualitative biographical data, the book offers a deep understanding of working parents' real lives by locating them within diverse national, workplace and family contexts. It provides rich insights into how policies and practices at the institutional level play out in individual and family lives, how they shape the decisions during both transition phases and in parents' daily experiences of juggling work and family life. It highlights some difficult and complex issues about the sustainability of contemporary working practices for bringing up children that are highly relevant in times of economic retrenchment. 'Transitions to parenthood in Europe' will be of interest to an academic readership at all levels of the social sciences, as well as employers, managers, trade unions and policy makers